Development of the motorways and its impact on the society Essay

Development of the motorways and its impact on the society - Essay Example otorways were constructed to fit into a maze of road networks that link major parts of Britain by road and aid high speed transportation throughout the country. Roads are important components of the development of any nation. The Romans and Chinese Empires relied on roads, which became the bases for motorways almost two millenia after they were started (Needham & Gwei-Djen, 1962). Roads were really vital for each empire in history. In comparative studies, Needham & Gwei-Djen identified that the Aztec empire of Mexico collapsed rapidly because they did not have a network of roads. However, the longevity of the Chinese Empire and the development of European nations is strongly linked to the development of a sophisticated network of roads. 3. It enabled the trading activities of the empire to go on smoothly because it ensured that goods were moved from different points of the Roman empire with ease. This enabled the exchange of goods and ensured the fair development of different parts of the Roman empire over a sustained period of time. Although the Roman roads are quite archaic, it formed the basis for the development of motorways as we have them today. The roads in the Roman Empire started as primitive unpaved roads however, with the increase of traffic on certain roads, there was the need for the infrastructure to be improved to enable the easy movement of persons and goods (Van Tilburg, 2002). This gave way for the development of the paved road-system which is replicated in the construction of motorways (Van Tilburg, 2002). The paved road-system effectively increased the width of roads, supported the integration of engineering constructions like bridges, dams and tunnels into roads and laid the foundation for the development of infrastructure in the Middle Ages (Van Tilburg, 2002). These roads were used by individuals and animal-drawn carts. When cars became popular in the 1900s, there was the need to modify the old road systems to ensure that they could be

“Complete, trusting surrender to God” Essay Example for Free

â€Å"Complete, trusting surrender to God† Essay Although the Qur’an, its sacred text, was only revealed to their Prophet Muhammad more than five centuries after the death of Christ, Muslims trace the beginnings of Islam to the time of Abraham. According to them, the series of revelations of the Qur’an which started in 610 CE in a cave in Mount Hira, Mecca, Saudi Arabia, marked only the renaissance of a religion which sank into insignificance when the people of Mecca rejected the monotheism preached by Abraham. The Islamic claim further states that being the original religion, it provided the foundations for the development of Judaism and Christianity. (Fisher. 2005. Islam) Since the time of the first revelation in Mount Hira, Islam has rapidly grown to become the second-largest religious denomination in the world, next only to Christianity, claiming a following of almost twenty percent of the world’s population. However, its growth has been temporarily slowed down, particularly in the United States, by the effects of the American war against terrorism which is evidently directed against Muslims. This U. S. -orchestrated anti-terrorism war, coupled with the dearth of knowledge about Islam, has severely alienated the Muslims from the rest of the non-Muslim world. (Fisher. 2005. Islam) Yusuf (n. d. ) said that majority of the Muslims are convinced that while the U. S. government has been blaming terrorism on Islam for years, it was the 9/11 incident which dealt the most telling blow on the credibility and reputation of their religion. This was because the international media was able to depict that many Muslims around the world rejoiced after that incident. The truth is, however, that majority of the Muslim world was saddened by that incident and the repercussions it caused. They would like to tell the world that terrorism is not an official policy of Islam and that, in fact, Muslims also consider terrorists as enemies of their religion. He laments the fact that When a crazy Christian does something terrible, everyone in the West knows it is the actions of a mad man because they have some knowledge of the core beliefs and ethics of Christianity. When a mad Muslim does something evil or foolish they assume it is from the religion of Islam, not because they hate us but because they have never been told by a Muslim what the teachings of Islam are all about. Muslims are also complaining about the way non-Muslims always confuse them with Arabs. According to them, while most Arabs are Muslims, less than 20% of Muslims have Arab blood. (Almuslimin. org) Allah is the only authority of this religion. Muhammad was only the messenger and prophet with whom he entrusted the sacred texts called the Qur’an in a series of revelations and who, three years after the first revelation occurred, preached them to the people according to his instruction and his will. However, Muhammad was the role model for all Muslims. His life story and his sayings were saved in the Hadith for every Muslim to learn from and emulate. The central teachings of Islam are oneness of God and of humanity; prophethood and the compass of Islam; human relationship to the divine; belief in the unseen life; and belief in the Last Judgment. (Fisher, 2005. Islam) Islam teaches that there is only one God. This is why the first words spoken to a Muslim infant are the words of the Shahadah – â€Å"la ilaha ill-Allah Muhammad-un Rasulu-llah† (â€Å"There is no god but God, and Muhammad is the Messenger of God†). God may be called by many names, but all the attributes assigned to those different names make up the totality of the One God. They contend that there must be absolute unity among all men of all races because they are all brothers under the one God, and no one race should consider itself the chosen race. Islam teaches that the individual should be one with God, therefore his or her thoughts and deeds should always be inspired by God. This oneness of God and of humanity was very emphatically expressed by Abu Hashim Madami, an Indian Sufi sage, when he said that â€Å"There is only one thing to be gained in life, and that is to remember God with each breath; and there is only one loss in life, and that is the breath drawn without the remembrance of God. † (Fisher. 2005. Islam, p. 373) All the prophets from Abraham to Jesus Christ are honored, but they maintain that Muhammad was the last prophet sent by God with the final message. This means, therefore, that the Qur’an sums up all the messages from God so Islam should include all religions, including Christianity and Judaism which also trace their roots to Abraham. They believe that God created the universe for a purpose and set down laws to govern everything. For this reason, man could live in peace only if he recognizes these laws and abide by them. They accept the existence of the angels, especially Gabriel, whom they credit with bringing the messages of God. They believe that Satan exists just as they believe that there are saints. For them, the Last Judgment means that dead Muslims are allowed some rest before being raised from the grave for the final reckoning, after which the sinners and the unbelievers are sent to hell. (Fisher. 2005. Islam) Their basic practices consist of what they call the Five Pillars of Islam, namely: Beliefs and witness; Daily prayers; Zakat; Fasting; and Hajj. Every Muslim, without resorting to the use of force or intimidation, are obliged to spread the words of Islam so that other people may know about it, understand it, and use the knowledge to guide them in choosing their faith. Prayers should be recited five times a day while facing the direction of Mecca. It is believed that requiring every Muslim to face Mecca symbolizes unity among the devotees of Islam around the world, while the daily prayer emphasizes Islam’s teaching that every Muslim should remember God everyday of his or her life. Zakat, the third pillar, means â€Å"spiritual tithing and almsgiving. † Muslims are enjoined to help the poor by donating part of their annual income to charities of their choice. The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, for example, channels its contribution through the Islamic Relief Organization which aids people around the world regardless of their religion. Every year, the first Qur’anic revelation is celebrated with a month-long fasting called Ramadan. All able Muslims are required to abstain from â€Å"food, drink, sexual intercourse, and smoking† from dawn to dusk. Although fasting during Ramadan is an obligation, fasting, per se, is advised from time to time because it provides an individual with â€Å"a Transparent Soul to Transcend, a Clear Mind to think and a Light Body to move and act. † The last Pillar – the hajj – is a pilgrimage which is expected of every Muslim who is financially and physically capable even only once during their lifetime. Their pilgrimage destination is Mecca, where their holiest sanctuary, the Ka’bah, is located. (Fisher. 2005. Islam) Muhammad, whose name was taken from the Arabic word hamada which means â€Å"to praise, to glorify,† was born in Mecca, Western Arabia, in 570 CE to Abd bin Al-Muttalib and Amina bint Wahb. (Kikim Media. n. d. ) His parents were believed to be descendants of Abraham and Hagar, the Egyptian slave who mothered Abraham’s son, Ishmael. The story goes that Abraham fled to Mecca with Hagar and Ishmael after his wife, Sarah, also gave birth to a baby boy (Isaac) and became extremely jealous of Hagar and Ishmael. Abraham later built the Ka’bah, Islam’s holiest sanctuary and now the destination of pilgrims during the hajj, in Mecca, Saudi Arabia, with the assistance of his son, Ishmael. (Fisher. 2005. Islam) The birth, life, and death of Muhammad impacted the world of Islam differently. His birth in 570 CE also signaled the rebirth of Islam which sank into obscurity for centuries when the people of Mecca rejected Abraham’s monotheistic Qur’an religion. His life as a preacher which began three years after the start of the revelations resulted to a rejuvenated Muslim world. The flight of the Muslims to Medina (or the hijrah) which he orchestrated in order for them to escape persecution from the hands of the Qurayshites of Mecca was what strengthened Islam as soon as they had settled in Medina. This later enabled them to raise a strong army to capture Mecca from the Qurayshites. However, while he re-established Mecca as the holy sanctuary of Islam, Muhammad himself chose to live in Medina. While his birth signaled the rebirth of Islam and his life rejuvenated their religion, his death in 632 CE in Medina caused a split in the Muslim world between what we now call the Shi’a and Sunni Muslims because of the issue of succession. Most of the surviving Muslims believed that although Muhammad was able to tell his followers what to do after his death, he failed to appoint his successor. Thus, the majority decided to settle the issue of succession by election. However, there was a minority group who insisted that it was not true that Muhammad did not name his successor because of a report that some weeks before he died, Muhammad held his son-in-law ‘Ali’s hand and uttered the following words: â€Å"Whoever I protect, ‘Ali is also his protector. O God, be a friend to whoever is his friend and an enemy to whoever is his enemy. † (Fisher. 2005. Islam, p. 380) The issue of succession was ultimately decided according to the wishes of the majority – by election – but the two factions have never reconciled up to this day. The Shi’a Muslims now form the majority faction in Iran, while the Sunnis are the majority in â€Å"Saudi Arabia, Egypt, Turkey, northern African countries, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Central Asian countries of the former Soviet Union, and Indonesia. † (page 378) Their place of worship is called a mosque. When I interviewed Bonsan Go, a student from Indonesia, he described a basic mosque as A square building with a small box-type space in front which serves as an extension. It has a dome on the center-top of the main building and a turret or a small ornamented tower or a tower-shaped projection on another building. Inside, you will fine a division (usually a length of fabric) which separates men from the women. There are no tables, chairs, or figurines inside the mosque. I thought, maybe, Mr. Go described a traditional mosque which used to be an Islamic architecture with a dome and one or two minarets. However, the more recent ones especially those constructed in the United States have chosen to go without the dome and the minarets. The more modern mosques have also done away with the curtain-like division which separates the men from the women. I have located one such mosque in Urbana, Illinois. A photo of this mosque is shown below: This is the Central Illinois Mosque and Islamic Center at 106 S. Lincoln, Urbana, Illinois. It is unmistakably an Islamic architecture with the arches found in front, but without the dome and minarets of olden mosques. Their website (http://www. prairienet. org/cimic/) announces that the mosque holds congregational prayers five times during the day, the first session being at 5:45 in the morning and the last at 7:30 in the evening. The center also offers Arabic classes and is open to visitors any day. CIMIC Newsletter is published bimonthly. In my interview with Bonsan Go, I was able to gain some insights on how a lay Muslim understands and practices Islam. About the hajj, Mr. Go describes it as the â€Å"symbol of unity between the Muslim Ummah and the Oneness of Mankind. † According to him, this has to be done at least once in a lifetime and is very important because it is one of the five pillars of Islam. He said that the hajj is obligatory for all Muslims who can afford it financially and physically. It is also important that the money spent for the hajj comes from hard work and not from corruption. He also talked about the Sunnis and Shi’ites. He described the Sunnis as following the teachings of Muhammad, imitating his every actions and words while the Shi’ites believe that Hadhrat Ali was the real successor to Muhammad because he belonged to the family of Muhammad. He further said that the Shi’ites call their leader an imam while the Sunnis call their leader a caliph, just like they do in Indonesia where the great majority of the Muslims are Sunnis. On the question of marriage, he said that a Muslim is not obliged to have several wives. However, once a man decides to do so, he can only marry as much as four times and he is required to treat all of them equally and see to it that all his wives maintain harmonious relationships all around. The Muslims, according Mr. Go, have never worshipped Muhammad. It is Allah that they give praise to. He considers it very disturbing that most people tend to equate the position of Muhammad with the one who created him. He said that to worship Muhammad instead of Allah is considered a great sin in Islam. On jihad, this was what he said: â€Å"Jihad is not a declaration of war against the enemies of Islam but a striving and a struggle in the path of God. Commitment to God involves commitment to sacrifice one’s time, energy and wealth to promote the right cause. It may be necessary at times to give one’s life in order to preserve TRUTH. † Before we parted ways, he told me that he is deeply saddened by the war on terror being waged by the United States and is targeted at Muslims. He said that the U. S. government has categorized all Muslims as terrorists and as such, must not be trusted. He said that the claim that Islam, as a religion, supports the activities of terrorists is definitely not true because even a Muslim like him hates terrorists. In the study of the beliefs and teachings of Islam and Christianity, Fisher (2005) has shown us the similarities between the two religions. They are both monotheistic, they have their own prophets (Jesus and Muhammad), and both religions trace their roots to Abraham. Islam and Christianity teach their followers to treat their fellowmen with fairness and both religions profess anti-violence sentiments. The Muslims are making this especially clear at every opportunity, enough reason for them to feel very badly towards the U. S. -led anti-terror war. The central beliefs of Islam are also very identical to the central beliefs of Christianity: they both believe in the brotherhood of men, in the angels, saints, even in Satan, and in the Last Judgment. If a split occurred between the Shi’a and Sunni Muslims after the death of Muhammad, a great schism likewise rocked the Christian world when the Roman Catholics and the Eastern Orthodox Church parted ways in 1054. Sadly, however, Fisher has also shown us that both Islam and Christianity have chosen the options of wars of aggression and occupations during the early days for the purpose of spreading their doctrines and widen their spheres of influence. (Fisher. 2005. Christianity; Islam) However, if Fisher (2005) has shown that Islam and Christianity have many similarities, they also differ in some aspects. The first difference is rather basic. While Islam revolves around Allah as its God and only authority, Christianity, as a faith, is based â€Å"on the life, teachings, death, and resurrection of Jesus. † Muslims disagree with Christians in this regard. They do not believe that Jesus is a son of God. To them, Jesus, like Muhammad, was only a prophet and messenger of God. Another glaring difference between the two religions occurred in connection with the death of Jesus and Muhammad. While Muhammad died peacefully in his bed because of some illness, his death divided the Muslim world into the Shi’a and the Sunni Muslims. Jesus, on the other hand, died a violent death (he was tortured and crucified), but his death strengthened and unified his people. (Fisher. 2005. Christianity; Islam). References Almuslimin. org. (n. d. ). Who Is Muhammad? (Retrieved March 9, 2007 from:http://drupalmalaysia. org/Islam/Muhammad) CIMIC. (n. d. ). Central Illinois Mosque and Islamic Center. (Retrieved March 5, 2007 from: http://www. prairienet. org/cimic/) Fisher, M. P. (2005). Christianity. Living Religions, Sixth Edition (pp. 284-361). Prentice-Hall. Fisher, M. P. (2005). Islam. Living Religions, Sixth Edition (pp, 362-416). Prentice-Hall. Kikim Media. (n. d. ). The Life of Muhammad. (Retrieved March 5, 2007 from: http://www. pbs. org/muhammad/timeline. html. shtml) Yusuf, S. H. (n. d. ). A Time for Introspection. (Retrieved March 9, 2007 from: http://www. masud. co. uk/ISLAM/misc/shhamza_sep11. htm) .

Nathaniel Hawthorne | Dr Heideggers Experiment

Nathaniel Hawthorne | Dr Heideggers Experiment Dr. Heideggers Experiment is a short story written by Nathaniel Hawthorne in the 19th century. Dr. Heideggers Experiment is about a doctor who claims to have water from the fountain of youth. He then he invites his friends over and conducts an experiment on them. He uses the water from the fountain of youth and makes them young again, but they break the vase holding the water and it wears off. Nathaniel Hawthorne is an American novelist and writer. He is known for his allegorical tales and excellent usage of literary devices. In Dr. Heideggers Experiment, Hawthorne uses symbolism, allegory and characterization to describe how people dont learn from their mistakes. Hawthorne uses the characterization of Dr. Heidegger to describe how people dont learn from their mistakes. Right before Dr. Heidegger lets his friends drink the water from the fountain of youth he says, Before you drink, my respectable old friends, said he, it would be well that, with the experience of a lifetime to direct you, you should draw up a few general rules for your guidance, in passing a second time through the perils of youth. Think what a sin and shame it would be, if, with your peculiar advantages, you should not become patterns of virtue and wisdom to all the young people of the age!' (Holt 231). Dr. Heidegger is characterized as uninterested in the how growing young again happens, or how the water from the fountain works. It is also revealed that Dr. Heidegger is wise, and is seeking answers about peoples behaviour and the folly of man. Dr. Heidegger has the intention of testing whether if given the opportunity, will people change their ways and learn from their mista kes. After the vase holding the water from the fountain breaks, Dr. Heidegger says, Yes, friends, ye are old again, said Dr. Heidegger, and lo! the Water of Youth is all lavished on the ground. WellI bemoan it not; for if the fountain gushed at my very doorstep, I would not stoop to bathe my lips in itno, though its delirium were for years instead of moments. Such is the lesson ye have taught me!' (235). It is revealed that Dr. Heidegger is curious about whether one will learn from his/her mistakes of the past. Dr. Heideggers experiments hypothesis that people dont learn from their mistakes was proven to be accurate. For my own part, having had much trouble in growing old, Im in no hurry to grow young again (231). Dr. Heidegger is characterized as one who values age and experience which he understands gives him wisdom. He remembers the mistakes he made in the past and learns from it. Hawthorne wrote Dr. Heideggers Experiment as allegory, where the four friends taking part in the experiment stand for mistakes and flaws which they dont change, to describe how people dont learn from their mistakes. As Hawthorne introduces the characters at the beginning of the short story he writes, Mr. Medbourne, in the vigor of his age, had been a prosperous merchant, but had lost his all by a frantic speculation, and was now little better than a mendicant (228). Mr. Medbourne stands for greed. He lost money making bad business decisions in the past. After the four friends transformed into their younger selves, Hawthorne writes, Mr. Medbourne was involved in a calculation of dollars and cents, with which was strangely intermingled a project for supplying the East Indies with ice, by harnessing a team of whales to the polar icebergs (233). Mr. Medbourne made the same foolish greedy business ventures again when he transformed. He has not learned from his mistakes. As Hawthorne intro duces the characters at the beginning of the short story he writes, Colonel Killigrew had wasted his best years, and his health and substance, in the pursuit of sinful pleasures, which had given birth to a brood of pains, such as the gout, and divers other torments of soul and body (228). He also describes Colonel Killgrew later in the story, Colonel Killigrews compliments were not always measured by sober truth (232). Colonel Killigrew stands for dishonesty and sin. He was a liar and pursued sinful pleasures, such as drinking and lusting. After the four friends transformed into their younger selves, Hawthorne writes, Colonel Killigrew all this time had been trolling forth a jolly bottle song, and ringing his glass in symphony with the chorus, while his eyes wandered toward the buxom figure of the Widow Wycherly (233). Colonel Killigrew is once again lusting and drinking excessively when he transformed. He is repeating the mistakes he made in the past. As Hawthorne introduces the ch aracters at the beginning of the short story he writes, Mr. Gascoigne was a ruined politician, a man of evil fame, or at least had been so till time had buried him from the knowledge of the present generation, and made him obscure instead of infamous (228). Mr. Gascoigne stands for stagnation. He failed as politician due to the lack of new ideas. After the four friends transformed into their younger selves, Hawthorne writes, Mr. Gascoignes mind seemed to run on political topics, but whether relating to the past, present, or future, could not easily be determined, since the same ideas and phrases have been in vogue these fifty years (233). His mind ran on the same ideas and topics just as he did in the past. He didnt learn from his mistakes and change. As Hawthorne introduces the characters at the beginning of the short story he writes, As for the Widow Wycherly, tradition tells us that she was a great beauty in her day; but, for a long while past, she had lived in deep seclusion, on account of certain scandalous stories which had prejudiced the gentry of the town against her (228). Widow Wycherly stands for vanity and promiscuity. She was very beautiful and did many scandalous things which forced her to go into hiding. After the four friends transformed into their younger selves, Hawthorne writes, As for the Widow Wycherly, she stood before the mirror courtesying and simpering to her own image, and greeting it as the friend whom she loved better than all the world beside. She thrust her face close to the glass, to see whether some long-remembered wrinkle or crows foot had indeed vanished. She examined whether the snow had so entirely melted from her hair that the venerable cap could be safely thrown aside (233). Hawthorne also writes, Doctor, you dear old soul, cried she, gets up and dance with me!' (234). Widow Wycherly is repeating her obsession with looks and vanity. She is also not changing her old promiscuous ways. She doesnt learn from her mistakes. When introducing the characters, Hawthorne also writes, It is a circumstance worth mentioning that each of these three old gentlemen, Mr. Medbourne, Colonel Killigrew, and Mr. Gascoigne, were early lovers of the Widow Wycherly, and had once been on the point of cutting each others throats for her sake (228). The three men used to fight over Wycherly. This conflict between the characters stands for hate. After the transformation, Hawthorne also writes, Dance with me, Clara! cried Colonel Killigrew. No, no, I will be her partner! shouted Mr. Gascoigne. She promised me her hand, fifty years ago! exclaimed Mr. Medbourne. They all gathered round her. One caught both her hands in his passionate grasp another threw his arm about her waistthe third buried his hand among the glossy curls that clustered beneath the widows cap. Blushing, panting, struggling, chiding, laughing, her warm breath fanning each of their faces by turns, she strove to disengage herself, yet still remained in their triple embrace (234). The four of them repeated what happened in the past and the men started fighting over Wycherly again. They all again didnt learn from their mistakes. Hawthorne uses symbolism of items belonging to Dr. Heidegger to describe how people dont learn from their mistakes. When describing Dr. Heideggers study, it says, Between two of the bookcases hung a looking-glass, presenting its high and dusty plate within a tarnished gilt frame. Among many wonderful stories related of this mirror, it was fabled that the spirits of all the doctors deceased patients dwelt within its verge, and would stare him in the face whenever he looked thitherward (229). The mirror symbolizes Dr. Heideggers failures as a doctor. The mirror reminds him of those failures and he learns from them. After the transformation and when they are fighting over Wycherly, it says, Never was there a lovelier picture of youthful rivalship, with bewitching beauty as the prize. Yet by some strange deception, owning to the duskiness of the chamber, and the antique dresses which they still wore, the tall mirror is said to have reflected the figures of three, old, gray, withered gran d-sires, ridiculously contending for the skinny ugliness of a shrivelled grand-dam (234). The mirror reveals that they are making the same mistakes as they did in the past and how foolish they are. The mirror symbolizes their repetition of those mistakes. When first introducing the experiment Dr Hiedegger says, This rose, said Dr. Heidegger, with a sigh, this same withered and crumbling flower, blossomed five and fifty years ago. It was given me by Sylvia Ward, whose portrait hangs yonder; and I meant to wear it in my bosom at our wedding. Five and fifty years it has been treasured between the leaves of this old volume. Now, would you deem it possible that this rose of half a century could ever bloom again?' (230). Dr. Heidegger kept this rose as a reminder of his mistakes in his relationship with his dead wife. It symbolizes Dr. Heideggers learned lessons of the past. Also in the description of Dr. Heideggers study, it says, In the obscurest corner of the room stood a tall and narr ow oaken closet, with its door ajar, within which doubtfully appeared a skeleton (229).The skeleton symbolizes peoples refusal to learn from their mistakes and as a result being internally dead. The skeleton being kept in the closet reveals that Dr. Heidegger has past horrible mistakes that he now learns from. The usage of the literary devices characterization, allegory and symbolism by Hawthorne excellently reveals the theme of the story, which is that people dont learn from their mistakes. Hawthorne characterizes Dr. Heidegger as wise and seeking answers about peoples behavior. Dr. Heideggers real intention of the experiment was to find out whether his friends will learn from their mistakes. Dr. Heideggers Experiment is written as an allegory. The four friends taking part in the experiment stand for the mistakes of the past which stay unchanged. Mr. Medbourne represents greed, Colonel Killigrew represents dishonesty and sin, Mr. Gascoigne represents stagnation, and Widow Wycherly represents vanity and promiscuity. The three mens conflict over Widow Wycherly represents hate. Items owned by Dr. Heidegger symbolize different aspects of learning from mistakes. The mirror represents Dr. Heideggers mistakes as a doctor and the repetition of mistake. The rose symbolizes Dr. Heideggers learned l essons of the past. The skeleton symbolizes Dr. Heideggers mistakes and also people not learning from their mistakes. Siddhartha: Book Analysis Siddhartha: Book Analysis One utilizes a potters wheel to mold and shape a piece of clay. As the wheel continues to spin, the clay transforms into a beautiful shape of art. This tool, however exists as more than just a mechanism for sculpting clay. The potters wheel stands as a profound metaphor for the circle of life. Herman Hesses prolific novel, Siddhartha, illustrates this metaphor through the examination of its protagonists life. In Siddharthas spiritual journey, his potters wheel initially spins, then slows down almost to the point of a standstill, and, with the help of that delay, sets into motion again. Just as the wheel physically sculpts clay into beautiful art, it metaphorically sculpts Siddharthas life into enlightenment. Siddharthas potters wheel spins from the very beginning of the story. Even his name exemplifies this metaphor, for it translates into the journey of life. (Lachotta) As the son of a Brahmin, Siddhartha feels unsatisfied with his transitory existence. (Hesse) He constantly thirsts for spiritual knowledge. In an effort to obtain this knowledge, he pumps the pedal of his potters wheel, and leaves his family behind to live a life of asceticism. On his spiritual journey, he encounters the samanas and Gotama, but cannot accept their teachings. He believes that true peace cannot be taught; he must experience it for himself. He expresses this belief in his conversation with the exalted Buddha, stating that for myself alone must I judge, must I choose, must I decline. (Hesse) In essence, he believes that he exists as the only potter in control of his wheel. He realizes that only he can cultivate his clay of life. As his journey continues into the city, his eyes become transfixed on an entirel y different existence Kamalas love. Although he previously denies all teachers, he allows Kamala and Kamaswami to teach him the arts of love and trade. This sets the new motion within his potters wheel, and ultimately, the new motion within his circle of life. As Siddhartha adapts to this new life of prosperity, he remains the samana within his heart. He continues to practice his own arts of thinking, fasting, and waiting, and feels indifferent to business affairs. (Hesse) However, as he plunges further into the world of the child people, his wheel begins to slow. The game of samsara begins to occupy his thoughts as much as the gods and Brahmin once [occupy] them. As Siddhartha makes love to Kamala, he slowly becomes seized by the spiritual malaise of the rich. (Hesse) The potters wheel within in his soul encompasses the wheel of asceticism, the wheel of thinking, [and] the wheel of determination. These wheels continue to whirl. However, they now spin slowly and hesitantly, and nearly [come] to a standstill. A slower speed in a potters wheel prompts errors in the clays structure. Similarly, this speed endangers Siddharthas self. Once the wheel reaches a standstill, it contains the potential to permanently engulf its creation. Siddhartha no tices this gradual transformation within his self, but becomes paralyzed to act against it. He lives as the hollow men do in the twilight kingdom. (Eliot) No longer a man of spirituality, he becomes a prisoner to gambling, wine, and dancing girls; he exists as the bird in the golden cage. In a symbolic dream, Siddhartha sees that the bird in the golden cage lies dead. This prompts him to head to the river, where his wheel sets into another motion. Upon his arrival to the river, Siddhartha stands hesitantly by the shore. The bird in his heart feels dead, and thus, his potters wheel feels at a standstill. He spits at his reflection, and then plunges into the water, where he sinks down toward death. Then he hears a word from the remote precincts of his soul. The holy OM of perfect completion penetrates his being, and sets his wheel in motion again. Siddhartha feels reborn. He realizes that with his unity of suffering and prosperity, he achieves true understanding of the world; he achieves nirvana. Although the slowing of the wheel exists as potentially detrimental to the clay, it also exists as necessary for a beautiful masterpiece. Paralleling the unity of both worlds, a potter must spin the wheel both fast to make the clay taller, and slow to center it. (Devries) Thus, Siddhartha molds his clay into enlightenment. Also, just as Siddhartha went through many smaller cycles to achieve his goals, the potters wheel spins in smaller cycles as it cultivates the clay. Siddhartha realizes these many cycles of life when he tells Govinda that the wheel of forms turns quickly. Furthermore, the river guides Siddhartha through his entire journey, just as the potter must continuously wet the clay as he guides its final shape. Water, therefore, exists as the sustenance for the potters wheel, in both physical and metaphorical terms. Siddharthas wheel sets into motion again, and ultimately, he completes his circle of life. Overall, Siddharthas spiritual journey parallels that of a potters wheel. Hesse creates this metaphor as the circle of life, and intricately weaves it throughout his entire novel. Siddharthas wheel initially spins, slows down almost to a standstill, and, with the help of that delay, sets into motion again. A potter must meet both motions in order to obtain a deeper and more beautiful creation. Otherwise, the creation exists as nothing more than a shadow, just as Siddhartha before he obtains his unity. In the end, Siddharthas circle of life results in an enlightened self. With his potters wheel, he creates something beautiful.

Iago’s Use of Rhetorical Strategies to Manipulate Othello in Shakespear

Iago’s Use of Rhetorical Strategies to Manipulate Othello in Shakespeare’s Othello Rhetorical strategies are continually used to get a point across or to manipulate another. Iago uses many devices to put false accusations into Othello’s head. In lines 330-447 in Act 3 scene 3, Iago uses rhetorical question, imagery, and sarcasm. He questions Othello and makes him think the worst between Cassio and Desdemona, and then his use of words adds color and a picture, so it has to be right. Last his sarcasm creates the assurances Othello needed to be duped. To start, Iago uses rhetorical questions favorably to cause Othello to question Desdemona’s love for him. When Othello finishes with â€Å"†¦Than answer my waked wrath!† Iago comes back with â€Å"Is’t come to this my lord.† Later he goes into â€Å"Are...

Hamlet Act Iii Climax Essay

In The Tragedy of Hamlet, Prince of Denmark Shakespeare uses personification, allusion, and a rhetorical question to advocate that the climatic moment of Act III is when King Claudius admits to the murder of King Hamlet because, by definition, it is the act that turns the action of the scene around, leading toward an inevitable conclusion. Shakespeare uses personification when King Claudius says that â€Å"[his] offense is rank, it smells to heaven† (line 36). Claudius’ guilt of killing his very own brother, King Hamlet, is constantly on his conscious, which is why he gives the â€Å"offense† the trait of a rank smell, something whose presence is constant and putrid. The purpose of personifying Claudius’ â€Å"offense† to have a smell that reaches to heaven is because Claudius is aware that heaven is where King Hamlet’s spirit lies due to his own fault, and his admit to the murder will drive the scene to an inevitable conclusion because he has released key information to a driving mystery in the plot line. Shakespeare makes a biblical allusion to Abel and Cain in lines 37-38 of the play when Claudius says that his â€Å"offense [†¦] hath the primal eldest curse upon’t, / A brother’s murder! †. Shakespeare is atoning that murder is never outdated; no matter the era or the place, the murder of a brother by a brother is never acceptable in the eyes of society or God. This allusion purposefully informs us that King Claudius did kill his brother, King Hamlet, as a warning that falling action concerning Claudius’ unforgivable acts is to proceed. Claudius rhetorically asks, â€Å"O, what form of prayer / Can serve my turn? † (lines 51-52). Claudius’ asks this with the knowledge that there is no form of prayer that would serve his turn because his acts were unforgivable and he must face the consequences for them. Rhetorical questions are always immediately answered, whether directly or indirectly, and King Claudius’ question is consequently to be answered via the falling action that is to proceed after his soliloquy. In King Claudius’ soliloquy in Act III he admits to the murder of his own brother, the late King Hamlet, while also admitting that it is unforgivable, giving the act nowhere else to turn, but to conclusive consequences to King Claudius’ faulty actions.

INTERNAL-COMBUSTION ENGINE Essays - Piston Engines, Free Essays

INTERNAL-COMBUSTION ENGINE Essays - Piston Engines, Free Essays INTERNAL-COMBUSTION ENGINE INTRODUCTION Internal Combustion Engine, a heat engine in which the fuel is burned ( that is, united with oxygen ) within the confining space of the engine itself. This burning process releases large amounts of energy, which are transformed into work through the mechanism of the engine. This type of engine different from the steam engine, which process with an external combustion engine that fuel burned apart from the engine. The principal types of internal combustion engine are : reciprocating engine such as Otto-engine, and Diesel engines ; and rotary engines, such as the Wankel engine and the Gas-turbine engine. In general, the internal combustion engine has become the means of propulsion in the transportation field, with the exception of large ships requiring over 4,000 shaft horsepower ( hp). In stationary applications, size of unit and local factor often determine the choice between the use of steam and diesel engine. Diesel power plants have a distinct economic advantage over steam engine when size of the plant is under about 1,000 hp. However there are many diesel engine plants much large than this. Internal combustion engines are particularly appropriate for seasonal industries, because of the small standby losses with these engines during the shutdown period. History The first experimental internal combustion engine was made by a Dutch astronomer, Christian Huygens, who, in 1680, applied a principle advanced by Jean de Hautefeuille in 1678 for drawing water. This principle was based on the fact that the explosion of a small amount of gunpowder in a closed chamber provided with escape valves would create a vacuum when the gases of combustion cooled. Huygens, using a cylinder containing a piston, was able to move it in this manner by the external atmospheric pressure. The first commercially practical internal combustion engine was built by a French engineer, ( Jean Joseph ) Etienne Lenoir, about 1859-1860. It used illuminating gas as fuel. Two years later, Alphonse Beau de Rochas enunciated the principles of the four-stroke cycle, but Nickolaus August Otto built the first successful engine ( 1876 ) operating on this principle. Reciprocating Engine Components of Engines The essential parts of Otto-cycle and diesel engines are the same. The combustion chamber consists of a cylinder, usually fixed, which is closed at one end and in which a close-fitting piston slides. The in-and-out motion of the piston varies the volume of the chamber between the inner face of the piston and the closed end of the cylinder. The outer face of the piston is attached to a crankshaft by a connecting rod. The crankshaft transforms the reciprocating motion of the piston into rotary motion. In multi-cylindered engines the crankshaft has one offset portion, called a crankpin, for each connecting rod, so that the power from each cylinder is applied to the crankshaft at the appropriate point in its rotation. Crankshafts have heavy flywheels and counterweights, which by their inertia minimize irregularity in the motion of the shaft. An engine may have from 1 to as many as 28 cylinders. Fig. 1, Component of Piston Engines. The fuel supply system of an internal-combustion engine consists of a tank, a fuel pump, and a device for vaporizing or atomizing the liquid fuel. In Otto-cycle engines this device is a carburetor. The vaporized fuel in most multi-cylindered engines is conveyed to the cylinders through a branched pipe called the intake manifold and, in many engines, a similar exhaust manifold is provided to carry off the gases produced by combustion. The fuel is admitted to each cylinder and the waste gases exhausted through mechanically operated poppet valves or sleeve valves. The valves are normally held closed by the pressure of springs and are opened at the proper time during the operating cycle by cams on a rotating camshaft that is geared to the crankshaft . By the 1980s more sophisticated fuel-injection systems, also used in diesel engines, had largely replaced this traditional method of supplying the proper mix of air and fuel; computer-controlled monitoring systems improved fu! el economy and reduced pollution. Ignition In all engines some means of igniting the fuel in the cylinder must be provided. For example, the ignition system of Otto-cycle engines , the mixture of air and gasoline vapor delivered to the cylinder from the carburetor